Introduction

This guide serves as a static resource to provide guidance on major concepts, definitions, and regulations to help pass the FAA Remote PIlot Certification Knowledge Exam.

Disclaimer: This guide is primarily meant to help students and staff in my own lab prepare for the exam. It is by no means comprehensive. Reading through FAA materials and synthesizing your own notes may be the most effective way to learn the material, but this can provide a starting point for much of the important information that is tested. Please see the full guide for the exam for additional information.

Chapter 1: Regulations

Getting started

• Establish an FAA Tracking Number (FTN) by setting up a profile http://iacra.faa.gov
• Register for exam and take practice exams http://faa.psiexams.com
• Test code UAG (Unmanned Aircraft General – Small
• 60 questions with 2.0 hours allowed. Must be 16 years of age to complete.

Introduction

• Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS)  are those that :
  • weigh ≤ 55 pounds including attachments.operated without direct human intervention from within or on the aircraft.
  • does not include kites, unmanned balloons, etc.
• 14 CFR “Part 107” refers to the portion of Title 14 Code of federal Regulations (14 CFR) adopted by the National Aerospace System (NAS) applies to sUAS flown for any kind of compensation (money, business, or otherwise)
• Applies to operations by civilians (civil operations), not public or military operations.
• Part 107 does not apply to drone flights for hobby, recreation, or search & rescue (uncompensated)
• Rules in 107 can be deviated from in response to in-flight emergency (report deviance to FAA administrator upon request)
• 14 CFR “Part 48” applies to all sUAS even for recreation. These are guidelines for marking/registration.

Certification

• Qualifications: Must be 16 years old, fluent in English, good physical/mental condition, fulfilling training and testing requirements
• Must complete FAA UAG knowledge exam initially, then every 24 months thereafter.
• Application must be submitted for processing to one of the following officials: Flight Standards Office (FSDO), Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE), pilot school certifier, certified flight instructor (CFI
• TSA will complete a background check.
• Falsifying records or reports can result in sanctions and suspension/revocation of certificates.
• If you have a change of address, you must notify FAA Airman’s certification within 30 days or lose privileges.

Crewmembers

• Pilot-in-Command (PIC) must be designated before each flight, and ultimately responsible that the operation poses no hazards if control is lost, and ensure compliance with regulations.
• A person may not serve as PIC or VO for more than one sUAS at the same time (even with automation)
• Autonomous operation (autopilot) can be used, but the PIC must have the ability to override commands to ensure compliance and safety and give right-of-way.
• Supporting crew (e.g., visual observer; VO) can operate controls of the sUAS under supervision of the PIC even if not certified if the PIC can take immediate control if necessary.
  • A “buddy box” system has two control stations, one that can be overridden by the PIC.
  • The PIC and other crew can just be physically standing close.
• Visual observers (VOs) are optional but must alert about hazards,  help maintain visual line of sight, and communicate with PIC.

Accidents

• Accidents must be reported within 10 calendar days if (1) there is serious injury or loss of consciousness, or (2) property damaging costing with repair/replace cost exceeding $500.
• “Serious injury” is defined as requiring hospitalization even if fully reversible (e.g., head trauma, broken bones, lacerations requiring stitches).
• Reports should be made to an FAA Regional operations Center, or electronically and include details, such as date, time, location, UAS registration number, airman certificate number.
• Hazardous materials may not be carried on any sUAS. Lithium batteries used for operation are not considered hazardous, but spare lithium batteries are hazardous.

Inspections and Registration

• Upon request, you must be able to present all documentation including pilot certificate, aircraft registration, waivers/exemption (if necessary) to FAA administrator (or authorized representative), other police, TSA or other officials.
• All sUAS (even recreational) must be registered if between [0.55 lbs. and 55] lbs. by someone at least 13 years of age.
• Registration mark must have FAA issued registration number and be visible and durable.
• sUAS must be inspected by the PIC before each flight to ensure it is in safe condition.
• May need a Foreign Aircraft Permit if registered in another country or operated by a non-citizen.
• Before any flight, the PIC must
  • assess weather conditions, airspace restrictions, and hazards.
  • brief supporting crew members about them
  • ensure sUAS is in safe condition, with control links, and attachments secure.
  • maintain documents (PIC certificate, aircraft registration, applicable waivers

Remote identification

• Remote identification is the ability of a UAS to broadcast their identification, location and velocity, and location of control station and is required from takeoff to shut down.
• If remote ID fails, the drone must be landed as soon as possible.
• Older models can be retrofitted with a remote ID module but must maintain line of sight. In this case, the Certificate of Registration must include the serial number of the aircraft remote broadcast module
• Exceptions:
  • Remote ID is not needed with FAA permission for research or compliance.
  • In FAA recognized identification areas within line of sight.

Visibility

• sUAS can be operated at civil twilight and night if equipped with anti-collision lights visible for at least 3 (statute) miles. Lights can be dimmed in the interest of safety.
• Civil twilight is the 30 minutes before sunrise and 30 minutes before sunset.
• sUAS must remain within the visual line of sight of at least one crew member without visual aids (i.e., binoculars)
• Brief, temporary, or intentional maneuvers behind obstacles (rooftop, tree, smoke) are permitted.

Operating Limitations

• In order to maintain visibility and see encroaching aircraft, all sUAS :
  • Cannot fly faster than 100 mph (87 knots)
  • Cannot fly higher than 400 ft (unless within 400 ft from a structure, then 400 feet above that)
  • Must have at least 3 mi visibility
• Cannot be flown within 500 feet below or 2000 feet horizontally from a cloud. Note that in order to fly 400 ft, you must have a cloud ceiling of 900 to meet the 500 ft requirement.
• PIC must yield to all other aircraft (planes, balloons, etc.) and avoid hazards (see and avoid), avoid operating anywhere that may interfere with airport operations.
• You cannot operate an sUAS over another human being unless they are directly participating in the flight, beneath a covered structure. Make a plan to keep others clear or under cover. And do not fly over moving vehicles.
• Drones can be operated over people if they are Category 1 (<0.55 lbs. with no exposed rotating parts)
• Category 2/3 drones require an FAA document of compliance (DOC).
• Drones with an airworthiness certificate (Category 4) can operate over people if not prohibited by the manual.
• sUAS can be operated from a moving vehicle in a sparsely populated area, so long as the driver is not a crewmember, and they are not transporting property on the sUAS. You cannot fly a drone from a moving aircraft.

Safe operation

• Objects may not be dropped that cause undue hazard.
• You can transport property with a drone if the total weight is <55 lbs., cargo is non-hazardous, and operation is intrastate, and not operated from moving vehicle.
• Crewmembers may not consume alcohol < 8 hours before operations, with a BAC >0.04 or while using a drug that impairs capabilities.
• Refusal to release results of BAC test may result in suspension, revocation, or application denial for 1 year.
• Conviction of possession/use of narcotic, marijuana, etc. is grounds for suspension/revocation of 1 year denial of certification.
• The Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge provides resources about the impacts of drugs and alcohol.
• If operation cannot be conducted within regulations, you can submit for a certificate of waiver to request deviations at least 90 days before operation. It can be approved if it does not compromise safety. Exceptions include operation for moving vehicles, anti-collision lights, line of sight, operation of multiple drones, certain airspace, etc.

Chapter 2: National Airspace System

Introduction

• The National air system (NAS) is divided into regulatory/controlled airspace (Class A-E, restricted, and prohibited) and nonregulatory/non-controlled airspace (Class G, military, etc.).
• Chart Supplement US is updated every 56 days with information about airports, bases, it also contains information about parachute jump locations.
• The Sectional Aeronautical Charts includes similar information with small scale for visual navigation of slow aircraft contains terrain, landmarks, railroads) revised every 6 months.
• Terminal Area Charts (TAC) are similar to SAC but more detail for less area.
• NOTAM (notices to airmen)have the time-critical information at (faa.gov or 1800WXbrief.com) they contain information like temporary flight restrictions
• Temporary flight restriction NOTAMs may be issued for certain areas for public figures, emergency response, or sporting events/public gatherings.
• Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) is the official guide to flight information and ATC procedures, issued yearly.

Airspace classification

• Most sUAS fly in uncontrolled airspace and PICs can only fly in controlled airspace with approval from ATC. Permission granted based on traffic density, and controller workload.
• Class A: 18,000 MSL to 60,000 MSL (jets, etc.) visual flights not allowed here; not displayed on sectional charts.
• Class B: Centered around large busy airports, surface to 10,000 ft. outlined in blue on sectional charts with various delimiting arcs that vary a lot. Must have an ATC clearance to operate in Class B.  Ceiling and Floor/Base of the sections is denoted with 100|40 indicating 10,000 MSL – 4,000 MSL ceiling and floor (SFC = Surface, e.g. 110|SFC). The outer “rings” are sometimes referred to as “shelf area”.
• Class C: area surface to 4,000 MSL and ~5 NM around an airport, and 1,200-4,000 feet in the ~10 NM indicated by magenta lines. guide also refers to an “outer area” of 20NM, but authorization is only required within 10NM.
• Class D: Extends surface to ~2,500 MSL around a small airport, indicated by blue dashed line. Ceiling defined in brackets, with negative meaning “up to but not including”. (e.g., [-25]
• Class E: other areas of controlled airspace not covered by other categories, so most is covered by E.  Sectional charts use different symbol for class E if Its from surface (magenta dashed), 700 AGL up to the next airspace (magenta halo), 1200 up to next airspace (blue halo). Class E beginning at 14,500 ft is not marked on sectional chart. Usually, ATC authorization is not needed for Class E.
• Class G: airspace from surface to base of overlying Class E. Where ATC has no authority (e.g., private airports) and can extent up to 14,500 ft. These don’t’ require any ATC clearance

• Special use airspace includes types below. Charts include area name, effective altitude, time and weather conditions.
  • Prohibited areas: flight prohibited usually for security or national welfare. Usually charted as e.g., P-40 (Camp David)
  • Restricted areas operations hazardous to non-participating aircraft and is thus restricted. Often invisible hazards (e.g., artillery firing, guided missiles. If inactive ATC allows aircraft. Usually marked with R (e.g., R-4401)
  • Warning areas: similar to restricted but without US sole jurisdiction, extending 3NM from coast (e.g., W-237)
  • Military Operation Area (MOA): defined limits for separating military training activities. Nonparticipating aircraft may be cleared if not in use (e.g., Camden Ridge MOA).
  •  Alert areas: Inform non-participating pilots of unusually high activity or training., Depicted with A (e.g., A-211)
  • Controlled Firing areas: activities occur that are hazardous, but suspended when aircraft approaches, so these are not marked
  • Federal airways are 4 NM wide on either side of the centerline from [1200 – 18000) MSL.
• “Other airspace areas” includes the following:
  • Local airport advisory (LAA): local advisors broadcast from local airport towers include weather reporting, Automated surface observing system (ASOS/AWOS)
  • Military Training Routes: routes use by military below 10,000 ft shown as (IR1206 or VR1207). 4-digit numbers mean operate <1,500 feet, 3-digit MTRs, indicate >1,500 ft.
  • National parks, forests, wilderness, seashores, monuments, wildlife refuge as noise-sensitive areas. Request aircraft remain 2000 ft above surface.
• ATC authorization for PIC to move into controlled airspace should be requested early, as there is no established timeline for approval. And approval can depend on traffic, workload, communication, etc.
• CTAF (common traffic advisory frequencies (CTAF) are listed, on charts next to “C” in MHz
• Some tricky stuff (Class B/C/D airspace listed as MSL but… Class E airspace boundaries denoted in AGL, but sometimes question asks about MSL, so convert to sea level based on elevation
• The runway symbol on Sectional charts for airports is BLUE for airports with control towers or MAGENTA for those without a control tower, regardless of airspace classification

Topography

• Latitude: imaginary lines that run parallel to the equator, measuring angular distance from equator, ranging from 0 (equator) to 90N (north pole) and 90S (south pole).
• Longitude: imaginary lines running from north to south pole. The prime meridian passes through Greenwich, England (0 degrees), and swings and extend west and east 180 degrees meeting the international date line
• Each tick on sectional chart is 0° 1’. Being able to locate areas on a map from coordinates requires understanding how lines of latitude and longitude decrease or increase at different places on earth. Also understand that “grid cells” on a sectional chart is in ½ degrees (30 minutes with 30 tick marks in between, with a major tick at 0° 10’ intervals.
• You can fly 400’ above vertical obstructions, so determine the maximum height to fly based on the object’s height + 400 ft. Pay attention to MSL vs. AGL.

Airport Operations

• Airports can be towered or non-towered. At towered airports, ATC controls operations, but in non-towered airports, you must monitor CTAF frequency to monitor traffic.
• It is generally expected that planes join midway through the downwind leg at a 45 degree angle, flights should always make left turns unless otherwise instructed.
• sUAS cannot interfere with operations of manned aircraft, including causing delays in takeoff, or landing.
• Airports have areas designated as SIDA (Security Identification Display Area) where you must have airport-issued/approved ID
• Generally, avoid operating near airport infrastructure, unless mission critical, in which case it requires authorization from FAA and air traffic control. FAA can approve or deny requests based on communication, workload, or traffic density.
• To facilitate operations around airport that are recurring, you can obtain a letter of agreement that outlines operations, and limitations. This will increase the likelihood of approval.
• If the airport does not have a tower (no ATC), monitor the CTAF frequency to be aware of traffic
• Runway numbers refer to approach direction (magnetic, divided by 10), so 180 approach is 18. If more than one runway has the same direction, then they’ll have L, C, or R for left, center and right.
• Know the basic positions of entry, downwind, base and final to know basic traffic pattern (see below)
• Holding lines on the taxiway (two solid lines, two dashed) represent where the aircraft should hold until receiving ATC clearance, before entering runway. Dashed lines on runway side, solid lines on taxiway side. Hold position signs are white inscription with red text.

Collision avoidance

• Midair collisions occur on clear days. If aircrafts are on collision course, both aircraft should adjust course to the right, regardless of size.
• Eye scanning technique uses short regularly spaced eye movements, with 10 deg held for 1 sec each.
• Operating sUAS with particulates in the air (rain, snow, ash, dust) may build up static and a corona (St Elmos Fire) which can disrupt communication or control if no static dischargers are present.
• Lasers from laser light shows and similar can create temporary or permanent vision impairment issues .
• Power plants and industrial activities may cause invisible thermal plumes that cause turbulence.
• Skeletal structures have guy wires extending 1500 feet, so stay 2000 feet away.
• Birds and wildlife collisions are rare but should be reported (wildlife.faa.gov), certain birds are agitated and will attack sUAS.

Airport Markings and Signs

• Runway heading is indicated by the runway number (Runway 16 =160° magnetic heading). Multiple runways differentiate as L, R, C (left, right, center)
• Nonlanding portions of runways are marked with arrows, until the “threshold” is reached where landing can occur.

• Hold location to move from taxiway to runway is FOUR YELLOW LINES: Double solid line, double dashed line. Hold on the double solid side before entering runway

• Know runway signs and markers. I have seen the practice questions on those with checks. Red signs with inscriptions hold positions with location indicated. Checks are ones I noted in practice exames

Chapter 3: Weather

Weather briefing

• Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR): Regularly scheduled observation of current surface weather in standard international format:

• Interpretation: “Routine METAR for Gregg County Airport for the 16th day of the month at 1753 (UTC) from automated source. Winds are 140 degrees at 21 knots gusting to 26. Visibility is ¾ statute mile. Thunderstorms with heavy rain and mist. The ceiling is broken at 800 feet, overcast at 1,200 feet with cumulonimbus clouds. Temperature 18 °C and dew point 17 °C. Barometric pressure is 29.70 in Hg and falling rapidly.”
• Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF): applicable to 5 mi radius of larger airports, issued ~4hrs (0, 6, 12, 18Z). Uses same abbreviations as METAR.

• Be able to interpret TAFs for specific times. Interpretation for the above: “Routine TAF for Pierre, South Dakota…on the 11th day of the month, at 1130Z…valid for 24 hours from 1200Z on the 11th to 1200Z on the 12th…wind from 150° at 12 knots… visibility greater than 6 SM…broken clouds at 9,000 feet… temporarily, between 1200Z and 1400Z, visibility 5 SM in mist…from 1500Z winds from 160° at 15 knots, gusting to 25 knots visibility greater than 6 SM…clouds scattered at 4,000 feet and broken at 25,000 feet…from 0000Z wind from 140° at 12 knots…visibility greater than 6 SM…clouds broken at 8,000 feet, overcast at 15,000 feet…between 0000Z and 0400Z, there is 30 percent probability of visibility 3 SM…thunderstorm with moderate rain showers…clouds broken at 3,000 feet with cumulonimbus clouds…from 0400Z…winds from 140° at 8 knots…visibility greater than 6 miles…clouds at 4,000 scattered and overcast at 8,000… temporarily between 0400Z and 0800Z…visibility 3 miles… thunderstorms with moderate rain showers…clouds overcast at 3,000 feet with cumulonimbus clouds…end of report”
• Convective Significant Meteorological Information (WST) Convective Sigmets issued with storms winds > 50 knots, surface hail > 0.75”, or tornados, or lines of thunderstorms.

Density altitude

• Density altitude: the altitude in the standard atmosphere corresponding to a particular value of air density. Standard temperature and pressure at sea level is 15C (59F) and 1013.2 mb (29.9 in Hg)
• Higher elevation conditions are associated with thinner air, lower density air, lower pressure, and lower elevation conditions vice versa.
• Water vapor is less dense than air, and therefore higher humidity air is lower density.
• sUAS perform better in higher density air (lower density altitude) than lower density air (higher density altitude). Performance factors include climbing speed,

Wind and obstructions

• Performance is decreased in heavy winds, potentially using more battery power and causing difficulty in control
• Obstructions such as buildings can create updrafts and downdrafts that may make it difficult to maintain positive control.
• Wind moves somewhat smoothly up a mountain, but is turbulent in the downwind side.
• Wind shear is a sudden drastic change in windspeed over a small area which can occur at any altitude. Low level wind shear is hazardous
• Microbursts are downdrafts that can bring sUAS dangerously close to ground. They are 1-2 mi diameter and ~1000 ft depth that lasts 5-15 minutes. Violent winds can cause terrain impact especially during landing/takeoff.
• Wind shear, sudden change in wind direction over small area, subjects aircraft to updrafts/downdrafts, and is especially at low altitudes, associated with frontal systems, thunderstorms, inversions. Expect wind shear at in a temperature invsersion with 25kt wind speed at 2000-4000 AGL.

Atmospheric stability

• Atmospheric stability arises from the resistance to vertical movement of air. Cool dry air is more stable than warm moist air. Unstable air results in turbulence and convective movement, and thunderstorms.
• Lapse rate can be used to measure atmospheric stability
• Stable air typically has smooth air, stratiform clouds/fog, continuous precipitation, and fair-poor visibility. Unstable air typically has rough air, cumuliform clouds, showery precipitation, and good visibility.
• Warm, moist air near the surface (warming from below) can lead to instability as invading colder air masses can form instability/clouds.
• Inversions occur when low level stable air occurs, and often traps fog, haze, etc.

Air masses and Fronts

• Cold front is the leading edge of an advancing cold air mass, accompanied by brief thunderstorms/heavy rain ahead of front. Once passed, increased wind speeds can lead to turbulence for a time.
• Warm front is the leading edge of advancing warm air mass. Move slower and are preceded by low ceilings, increased precipitation and, reduced visibility.
• Frontal passage will be indicated by change in temperature, drop and return in pressure, shift in wind direction, speed, or both.

Thunderstorms

• Thunderstorms are cumulonimbus clouds accompanied by lightning/thunder.
• Cumulonimbus most dangerous to pilots, (updraft of mountains can start thunderstorms).
• Squall lines are narrow bands of active thunderstorms that are dangerous to pilots because they are difficult to detour, and too severe to penetrate, and can occur at any altitude.
• Thunderstorms gradually go through three stages, and thunderstorms may be a cluster of cells at different stages.
• Thunderstorms require sufficient water vapor (humidity), lifting force, and unstable conditions.
• Cumulus stage: cumulus clouds build with updrafts (3,000 fpm) from near surface to cloud top, upwelling carries liquid water which gets heavier
• Mature stage: eventually upwelling gets colder, heavier, and falls as precipitation, dragging cold air downdraft coincident with the updraft. The downdraft makes gusty surface winds, temp drop, and rise in pressure. Updrafts reach their maximum and make very turbulent environment
• Dissipating stage: downdrafts are dominant, and storm dies rapidly, clouds resemble anvil

Fog and Ice

• Visibility from sUAS is 3SM, 500 ft below cloud and 2000 ft horizontally from cloud
• Structural icing occurs when aircraft flies through visible water, and aircraft itself cooled to frozen (which can occur even if ambient is warmer).  Occurs rapidly in freezing rain that may be present in an inversion. Icing decreases lift and thrust, and increases weight and drag
• Dew forms when cool surfaces cause temperatures of surrounding air to drop below dew point, and air condenses onto ground
• Frost forms if temperature is below freezing, moisture deposited in form of first.
• Fog is a surface-based cloud formed by cooling air to its dew point or adding moisture to the air near the ground. Forms especially with a small temperature/dew point spread, which can repaidly reduce visibility.
• Radiation fog (ground fog) formed when ground cools (e.g., at night) which cools surrounding air below its dew point. Occurs with warm moist air over low flat areas on clear, windless nights
• Advection fog (sea fog) warm moist air blown over cold ground (e.g., air moving inland from coast in winter)
• Upslope fog: moist stable air is cooled as it is blown sloping terrain
• Precipitation induced fog: warm drizzle falling through cooler air. Rain saturates the cool air and forms fog.
• Steam fog: cold dry air passes from land areas over warm ocean waters, can lead to icing and turbulence

Chapter 4: Loading and Performance

Control

• Primary control system of airplane consists of aileron, rudder, and elevator
  • Aileron (hinges on wings) control Roll -> spinning about nose
  • Elevator (hinges on horizontal rear stabilizer) control Pitch -> pointing nose up/down
  • Rudder (hinge on vertical rear stabilizer) control Yaw -> point noise left/right
• Secondary control system consists of wing flaps, spoilers, trim, etc.

• Dead reckoning navigation based using computations based on time, airspeed, distance, and direction (heading/ground speed)
• Pilotage navigation based on reference to landmarks/checkpoints
• Wind triangle is navigation based on triangulation: vector sum of wind vector (speed direction) and aircraft vector (speed/direction)

Weight

• Manufacturer maximum gross takeoff weight is specified, but may not be adequate in adverse conditions (e.g., high density altitudes), surface wind, or obstacles.
• Burning fuel (or jettison load) reduces weight and improves performance, but may reduce balance
• Gravity is a pulling force that draws all bodies to the center of the earth.
• Center of Gravity (CG) is point at which all weight is concentrated, and its position has a bearing on stability.
• Center of pressure (CP) where aerodynamic forces of lift occur.
• If GC is forward of CP, aircraft pitches nose down, if CP is forward of GC, pitch up (to remember this, imagine CG as a fulcrum on a seesaw).
• Stability is the quality to correct for conditions that disturb equilibrium and return to original flight path, usually a characteristic of aircraft design.
  • Maneuverability:  quality to maneuver easily and withstand stresses from maneuvers, based on aircraft weight, inertia, size, location of flight controls, and “powerplant”
  • Controllability: capability of aircraft to control to response to pilots control,
• Excessive weight reduced performance including reduced rate of climb, lower maximum altitude, shorter endurance, and reduced maneuverability.
• Empty weight is the airframe, power source and all fixed equipment, and unusable fuel.
• Useful load includes power source, payload mission equipment (camera).
• Launch weight Empty weight+ useful load, landing weight is launch weight – fuel used/load jettisoned.

Load factor

• Load factor is the amount of force placed on an aircraft as it deflects its flight from a straight line. Measured in Gs (acceleration of gravity) and based on a proportion of lift and weight.
• Aircrafts can withstand set amounts of load factors, and large load factors can cause stalling
• Forces borne on the aircraft increase with any maneuvers, for example, with a 60degree banked turn that maintains altitude, load factor = 2 x weight. So an aircraft must be able to support twice its weight. For a given bank angle, be able to find Load factor from chart. Multiply the weight of the aircraft times load factor to calculate load wings must support during maneuver.

Stalling

• Airfoil is a structure that produces a reaction to air movement (e.g., wing, propellor)
• Chord line imagined from the leading edge to railing edge of airfoil
• Relative wind is the wind “experienced” by an airfoil, usually parallel to flight path.
• Angle of attack is the angle between chord line and relative wind

• With large AOA, (to increase lift) turbulence occurs on trailing edge, at AOA ~20*, the turbulence decreases lift so much that stalling occurs called the critical angle of attack.
• Aircraft can stall at any speed, but always at the same critical AOA.
• At lower densities, higher speeds are needed encoutner same relative wind
• Increasing load factor can permit stalling at higher speeds airspeeds

Chapter 5: Operations

Maintenance and Inspection

• Before each flight the PIC is responsible for preflight inspection for the entire system focused on evaluating damage or malfunction. Repeat inspection between consecutive flights.
• The inspection should be systematic as recommended by manufacturer and include:
  • Visual condition of airframe, linkages, propellors,
  • Visibility of registration and markings
  • Attachment of motors, cameras, equipment
  • Verify communication linkages, battery levels, adequate fuel, software,
  • Flight path walk through for hazards and obstructions
• Follow manufacturer maintenance schedule but also (1) document any repair or modifications, (2) their time in service, and (3) assess records over time to establish regular maintenance schedule
• Keep maintenance records for the sUAS, control station, data link, and payload

Communication procedures

• When using a team approach, ensure all crewmembers, encourage frequent, and open communication through radios or other means.
• Recommended to have a visual observer maintain visual contact and communicate with PIC.
• Use aviation communication guidelines for efficient communication.
  • Use phonetic alphabet.
  • Words with thousands and hundreds should be spoken with those descriptors.
  • Include “knots” or “miles per hour” for all speeds.
  • Include “true” for direction, otherwise assume magnetic.
  • Time is usually spoken in a 24-hour format in UTC (Zulu time)
• Transmissions should include aircraft call sign, location, and request/message.
• Automatic Terminal Information Service (AITS) is an automated broadcast in busy areas. Listen to this before speaking to traffic control and indicate the information was received.
• In airports without a control tower, must tune to CTAF frequency (Chart supplement) where aircraft announce location, intensions, etc.
• If no tower or FSS, then self-announce on CTAF > UNICOM > MULTICOM 122.9
• Beginning monitoring and communicating with CTAF 10 SM from landing, unless otherwise requested.
• Control links and video download are often run on unlicensed frequencies (2.4 GHz, 5.8 GHz). You can ensure no frequency disruption using a frequency spectrum analyzer.
• Sky conditions are unannounced if ceiling >5,000 ft and visibility > 5 mi
• Phonetic alphabet:

A	ALPHA		H	HOTEL		O	OSCAR		V	VICTOR
B	BRAVO		I	INDIA		P	PAPA		W	WHISKEY
C	CHARLIE		J	JULIETTE		Q	QUEBEC		X	XRAY
D	DELTA		K	KILO		R	ROMEO		Y	YANKEE
E	ECHO		L	LIMA		S	SIERRA		Z	ZULU
F	FOXTROT		M	MIKE		T	TANGO		5	FIFE
G	GOLF		N	NOVEMBER		U	UNIFORM		9	NINER

Emergency procedures

• PICs are allowed to deviate from part 107 to mitigate emergencies but may need to submit FAA report regarding deviation.
• Lost link procedures should be pre-set to avoid emergencies such as remaining stationary, flying an obstacle free pre-determined route, or auto landing. This is not considered an emergency.
• Flight termination points must be located within power-off glide distance, consider altitude, winds, and obstacles.
• Fly-aways are emergencies that often begin as a lost link and can occur due to frequency interference. Notify crewmembers, standards, and ATC as appropriate.
• sUAS are usually robust to loss of GPS but include in contingency planning.
• Battery fires are dangerous because of the high energy density batteries used. Lithium metal and Lithium-ion batteries are flammable, self-ignoring, and subject to thermal runaway. Lithium can react with water, so use a Type D fire extinguisher.
• To avoid short circuits in batteries, retain original packaging, do not let batteries contact metal objects, and protect batteries from damage.
• Batteries contain hazardous materials, so dispose of them properly.

Aeronautical decision making

• Situational awareness is obtained by being familiar with performance capabilities, weather conditions, surrounding airspace, privacy issues, and ATC requirements.
• Aeronautical decision making is a systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to determine the best course of action.
  • Identifying hazards
  • Learning behavior modifying techniques
  • Recognize and cope with stress
  • Develop risk assessment skills
  • Using all available resources
  • Evaluate effectiveness of aeronautical decision making skills
• Crew resource management is the effective use of all available resources (crew, hardware, information) including delegating tasks, recognizing hazardous attitudes, establish effective communication procedures, and open to questions and concerns.
• Safety management system is a formal top down approach to managing safety risk where the remote PIC identifies, delegates, and manages tasks for each sUAS operation.
• Operational pressure can bring about hazardous attitudes.
  • Anti-authority: disregarding rules, regulations, and procedures as unnecessary
  • Impulsivity: feels need to take action immediately without thinking about alternatives
  • Invulnerability: fails to realize accidents can happen to anyone and takes risks
  • Machoism: takes risks to impress or prove things to others
  • Resignation: does not believe actions make a difference

Physiology

• Contingency plans should be in place in case the PIC or other crewmember is incapacitated. No crewmember should participate with a known physical or mental conditions that would interfere with safe operations
• Hyperventilation: CO2 deficiency from rapid, panicked breathing. Overcome by breathing into bag or otherwise slow breathing.
• Fatigue: degradation of attention and concentration and leads to pilot error. Caused by sleep loss or physical work. Acute fatigue is short term and cured by resting after exertion. Chronic fatigue doesn’t go away with rest and not explained by underlying physical condition
• Dehydration: critical loss of water due to wind, humidity, diuretic drinks. Symptoms include headache, fatigue, cramps, and dizziness. Drink 2-4 quarts of water every 24 hours
• Be sure to allow eyes 30 minutes to adjust to dark conditions after working with bright lights to improve visibility.
• Hypothermia: indicated by shivering, clumsiness, confusion. PICs should ensure that crew is prepared for the environment operation is set to take place.
• Chronic stress: results with mismanagement of long term stress and can lead to confusion, insomnia, depression. Best way to cope is to remove stressors, physical activity and healthcare